A-Z glossary
Definitions, demystified.
Chemistry, biotech, supply-chain and regulatory terms — each with a short definition, related products, and linked reading.
A
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Absorbance
Absorbance is a dimensionless measure of the amount of light absorbed by a sample as it passes through, commonly used in spectrophotometry to quantify analyte concentration in solution.
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Acetic acid
Acetic acid is a colourless organic compound with a pungent smell, commonly used in laboratories and industrial processes. It is a key component in vinegar and serves as a reagent in chemical synthesis, particularly in the production of cellulose acetate and vinyl acetate.
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Acetone
Acetone is a colourless, volatile organic solvent with a distinctive odour, commonly used in laboratories for cleaning glassware, dissolving organic compounds, and as a reagent in chemical synthesis. It is miscible with water and many organic solvents.
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Acetonitrile
Acetonitrile is a polar aprotic solvent commonly used in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and other analytical techniques. It is valued for its low viscosity, high solubility for organic compounds, and compatibility with UV detection. Widely used in pharmaceutical and biotech labs, it must be handled with care due to its toxicity and flammability.
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Acid chloride
Acid chlorides are reactive organic compounds derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the hydroxyl group with a chlorine atom. They are widely used in synthetic chemistry for forming esters, amides, and other derivatives.
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ACS grade
ACS grade refers to chemicals meeting the stringent purity and specification standards set by the American Chemical Society, ensuring high reliability for research, analytical, and industrial applications.
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ADR
ADR stands for 'Advanced Drug Release' or 'Adverse Drug Reaction', depending on context. In pharmaceutical development, it commonly refers to systems designed for controlled, sustained, or targeted drug delivery. In regulatory and safety contexts, it denotes an unexpected or harmful response to a medication.
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Alcohol
Alcohol refers to a class of organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a carbon atom. In laboratory and industrial contexts, ethanol is the most commonly used alcohol for disinfection, solvent applications, and as a reagent in chemical synthesis.
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Aldehyde
Aldehydes are organic compounds containing a carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen atom, typically represented as R-CHO. They are highly reactive and play key roles in biochemical processes, synthetic chemistry, and industrial applications such as polymer production and fragrance formulation.
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Amide
An amide is a functional group in organic chemistry characterised by a carbonyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom. Amides are key structural motifs in peptides, proteins, and many pharmaceuticals, offering stability and hydrogen-bonding capability.
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Amine
An organic compound containing a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more alkyl or aryl groups. Amines are fundamental in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and biotechnology, serving as building blocks for drug synthesis and functionalisation of biomolecules.
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Anhydride
An anhydride is a chemical compound formed by the removal of water from an acid. In biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, acetic anhydride and succinic anhydride are commonly used to modify functional groups in molecules, such as in the synthesis of prodrugs or protein conjugation.
B
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Batch number
A unique identifier assigned to a specific production run of a chemical, reagent, or biopharmaceutical product, enabling traceability and quality control throughout its lifecycle.
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Beer-Lambert law
The Beer-Lambert law describes the relationship between the absorption of light by a solution and the concentration of the absorbing species, as well as the path length of the light through the sample. It is fundamental in spectrophotometry for quantifying analytes in solution.
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Beta-mercaptoethanol
Beta-mercaptoethanol (BME) is a reducing agent commonly used in biochemical and molecular biology applications to prevent disulfide bond formation, stabilise proteins, and maintain the reduced state of thiol groups in samples.
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Bicine
Bicine is a zwitterionic buffer commonly used in biochemical and biotechnological applications, particularly in protein purification and enzyme assays. It maintains stable pH in the range of 7.6–9.0 and is effective at physiological temperatures.
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Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid turns into a vapour at a given pressure, typically standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa). It is a key physical property used to identify substances and assess purity in chemical and biotechnological applications.
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Boronic acid
Boronic acids are organic compounds containing a boron atom bonded to two hydroxyl groups and one organic substituent. They are widely used in medicinal chemistry, particularly in the development of protease inhibitors and boron-containing drugs such as bortezomib.
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BP grade
BP grade refers to a chemical or reagent meeting the specifications set out in the British Pharmacopoeia, ensuring high purity and suitability for pharmaceutical and clinical applications.
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Buffer capacity
Buffer capacity measures a solution's ability to resist pH changes when small amounts of acid or base are added. It is critical in maintaining stable pH conditions in biochemical and pharmaceutical processes.
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CAS Registry Number
A unique identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) to every chemical substance described in the open scientific literature, enabling precise identification and tracking across databases and regulatory systems.
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Cell culture medium
A nutrient-rich liquid or gel designed to support the growth, proliferation, and maintenance of cells in vitro. It typically contains essential nutrients, amino acids, vitamins, salts, and buffering agents, often supplemented with serum or serum replacements to enhance cell viability and performance.
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Cell-culture grade
Cell-culture grade refers to reagents or materials specifically purified and tested for use in cell-culture applications, ensuring minimal toxicity, consistent performance, and absence of contaminants that could compromise cell viability or experimental reproducibility.
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Certificate of Analysis (CoA)
A CoA is a document issued by a manufacturer or supplier that verifies the quality, purity, and identity of a chemical or biological product, confirming it meets specified analytical standards and specifications.
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Chirality
Chirality describes the geometric property of a molecule that makes it non-superimposable on its mirror image, resulting in enantiomers with distinct biological and chemical behaviours, critical in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.
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Chloroform
Chloroform (trichloromethane) is a colourless, volatile liquid with a sweet odour, historically used as an anaesthetic and now primarily employed in chemical synthesis and as a solvent in laboratories.
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Cold chain
A temperature-controlled supply chain used to maintain the stability and efficacy of temperature-sensitive products, such as biologics, vaccines, and certain chemicals, from manufacture to end use.
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Cryopreservation
Cryopreservation is the process of preserving cells, tissues, or organs at ultra-low temperatures, typically using liquid nitrogen, to maintain viability for extended periods. It is widely used in biobanking, reproductive medicine, and regenerative therapies.
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Customs declaration
A legal document submitted to customs authorities declaring the details of goods being imported or exported, including description, value, origin, and applicable duties or taxes. It is required for compliance with international trade regulations and ensures accurate assessment of import/export charges.
D
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Deliquescence
Deliquescence is the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the air to the point of dissolving in the absorbed water, forming a liquid solution. This property is critical in handling hygroscopic chemicals in laboratory and industrial settings.
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Density
Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume, typically expressed in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m³) or grams per millilitre (g/mL). It is a fundamental physical property used to characterise materials in chemical, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological applications.
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Diastereomer
Diastereomers are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other and have different physical and chemical properties. They arise in molecules with two or more chiral centres, where configurations differ at some but not all centres.
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Dichloromethane
Dichloromethane is a volatile, colourless organic solvent with the chemical formula CH₂Cl₂. It is widely used in industrial and laboratory settings for extraction, cleaning, and as a reaction medium due to its low boiling point and good solubility for many organic compounds.
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Dielectric constant
The dielectric constant is a dimensionless measure of a material's ability to store electrical energy in an electric field, relative to a vacuum. It influences how electric fields interact with materials in applications such as capacitors, sensors, and biochemical assays.
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Diethyl ether
Diethyl ether is a volatile, flammable organic solvent commonly used in laboratories for extractions and as a reagent in organic synthesis. It has a low boiling point and high vapour pressure, requiring careful handling due to its explosive vapour-air mixtures.
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DMF
Dimethylformamide (DMF) is a polar aprotic solvent widely used in organic synthesis, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and polymer processing due to its ability to dissolve a broad range of organic and inorganic compounds.
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DMSO
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a polar aprotic solvent widely used in laboratory and pharmaceutical applications due to its ability to dissolve a broad range of organic and inorganic compounds, as well as its capacity to penetrate biological membranes.
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DNA precipitation
DNA precipitation is a laboratory technique used to isolate and concentrate DNA from solution by reducing its solubility using alcohol, typically ethanol or isopropanol, in the presence of salt. This method is widely used in molecular biology for purifying DNA prior to downstream applications such as PCR, sequencing, or cloning.
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DTT (Dithiothreitol)
DTT is a reducing agent commonly used in biochemical and biotechnological applications to break disulfide bonds in proteins, stabilising them in their reduced, functional state. It is widely employed in protein purification, electrophoresis, and enzyme assays.
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EDTA
EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) is a chelating agent widely used in laboratory and industrial applications to sequester metal ions, particularly calcium and magnesium. It stabilises solutions by preventing metal-catalysed reactions and is essential in biochemical assays, cell culture, and sample preservation.
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EGTA
EGTA is a calcium chelating agent used in biochemical and cell biology research to selectively bind and remove free calcium ions from solution, enabling precise control of calcium-dependent processes.
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ELISA
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) is a widely used laboratory technique for detecting and quantifying specific proteins, antibodies, or antigens in biological samples using enzyme-labelled antibodies and colourimetric detection.
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Enantiomer
Enantiomers are stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other, often exhibiting distinct biological activities despite identical physical and chemical properties in achiral environments.
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Endotoxin
Endotoxins are lipopolysaccharides (LPS) found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. They are potent pyrogens that can trigger strong immune responses, making them critical contaminants to monitor in pharmaceuticals, biologics, and medical devices.
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EP grade
EP grade refers to chemicals meeting the specifications of the European Pharmacopoeia, ensuring high purity and suitability for pharmaceutical and biotechnological applications. These standards are recognised across Europe and are essential for compliance in regulated environments.
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Ester
An organic compound formed by the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, resulting in an ester linkage (–COO–). Esters are widely used in pharmaceuticals, fragrances, and polymers due to their stability and diverse functional properties.
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Ethanol
Ethanol is a colourless, volatile alcohol commonly used as a solvent, disinfectant, and fuel. In laboratory and biotech settings, it is essential for DNA/RNA precipitation, cell fixation, and sterilisation. It is also regulated under frameworks such as REACH and GHS due to flammability and health hazards.
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Ether
Ethers are organic compounds containing an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. They are widely used as solvents in chemical synthesis and laboratory processes due to their low reactivity and ability to dissolve a range of organic and inorganic substances.
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FCC grade
FCC grade refers to chemicals meeting the standards set by the Food Chemicals Codex, a compendium of standards for the purity and quality of food-grade chemicals, ensuring suitability for use in food and pharmaceutical applications.
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Flash point
The lowest temperature at which a volatile substance gives off sufficient vapour to form an ignitable mixture with air near its surface. It is a critical safety parameter for handling, storing, and transporting flammable liquids in laboratory and industrial settings.
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GC-MS
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is an analytical technique combining gas chromatography for separation of volatile compounds with mass spectrometry for identification and quantification. It is widely used in environmental testing, forensic science, pharmaceuticals, and metabolomics.
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Gel electrophoresis
A laboratory technique used to separate DNA, RNA, or proteins based on their size and charge by applying an electric field across a gel matrix, commonly agarose or polyacrylamide.
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GHS
The Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an international standard for classifying hazardous chemicals and communicating their risks through consistent labels and safety data sheets.
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Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that serves as a primary energy source for cells in living organisms. It is essential in metabolic processes and is commonly used in biochemical research, pharmaceutical formulations, and cell culture media.
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Glycerol
Glycerol is a colourless, odourless, viscous liquid widely used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biotechnology as a stabiliser, humectant, and cryoprotectant. It is a triol with three hydroxyl groups, making it highly soluble in water and compatible with biological systems.
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Grignard reagent
Organomagnesium compounds formed by reacting alkyl or aryl halides with magnesium metal in anhydrous ether solvents. They are powerful nucleophiles used in organic synthesis to form carbon–carbon bonds, particularly in the preparation of alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones.
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Guanidine hydrochloride
Guanidine hydrochloride is a chemical compound used to denature proteins and disrupt secondary and tertiary structures, commonly employed in protein purification and refolding studies. It is also used in biochemical assays and as a stabiliser in certain formulations.
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Hazardous shipping
The regulated transport of chemicals or materials posing physical, health, or environmental risks during transit, governed by international and national safety standards to ensure safe handling and prevent accidents.
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Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relates the pH of a solution to the pKa of a weak acid and the ratio of the concentrations of its conjugate base and acid forms. It is widely used in buffer preparation and pH prediction in biochemical and pharmaceutical applications.
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HEPES
HEPES is a zwitterionic buffering agent commonly used in biological and biochemical applications to maintain stable pH in aqueous solutions, particularly in cell culture and protein purification.
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Hexane
Hexane is a colourless, volatile hydrocarbon solvent derived from petroleum, commonly used in laboratory and industrial processes for extracting oils and fats due to its low boiling point and non-polar nature.
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HPLC
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a widely used analytical technique for separating, identifying, and quantifying components in a liquid mixture. It operates under high pressure to force the sample through a column packed with a stationary phase, enabling precise and rapid analysis of complex mixtures in pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and environmental testing.
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HTS code
An HTS code is a Harmonised System code used for classifying goods in international trade, enabling customs authorities to identify products for tariff application, trade statistics, and regulatory compliance.
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Hydrochloric acid
A strong, corrosive mineral acid composed of hydrogen chloride dissolved in water. Widely used in industrial processes, laboratory applications, and pharmaceutical manufacturing for pH control, digestion, and chemical synthesis.
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Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopicity is the ability of a substance to attract and hold water molecules from the surrounding environment, often leading to changes in physical properties such as weight, solubility, or reactivity. This property is critical in handling and storing laboratory chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
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IATA
IATA stands for the International Air Transport Association, a trade organisation that sets standards for air travel safety, security, and operational efficiency. It plays a critical role in regulating the transport of hazardous materials, including chemicals and biological substances, by air.
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IMDG
IMDG refers to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, a UN-developed regulation governing the safe transport of hazardous materials by sea. It sets standards for classification, packaging, labeling, documentation, and handling to ensure maritime safety and environmental protection.
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Imidazole
Imidazole is a heterocyclic organic compound with the formula C3H4N2, featuring two nitrogen atoms in a five-membered ring. It is widely used in biochemistry and pharmaceuticals due to its ability to act as a buffer and participate in enzyme catalysis.
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InChI
InChI (International Chemical Identifier) is a non-proprietary, standardised identifier for chemical substances, designed to provide a unique, machine-readable string representation of molecular structure, enabling reliable data exchange and database searching across scientific domains.
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InChIKey
A condensed, fixed-length identifier derived from the InChI (International Chemical Identifier) that uniquely represents a chemical substance. It enables rapid database searching and is widely used in chemical informatics for substance identification and data integration.
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Ionic strength
Ionic strength quantifies the concentration of ions in a solution, influencing electrostatic interactions and affecting the behaviour of molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids in biochemical systems.
K
L
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LB broth
LB broth is a nutrient-rich liquid medium commonly used in microbiology for the cultivation of bacteria, particularly Escherichia coli. It supports rapid growth and is widely used in molecular biology and biotechnology applications.
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Lead time
Lead time is the duration between placing a purchase order and receiving the goods or services. In procurement, it affects inventory planning, production scheduling, and supply chain reliability.
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Lithium chloride
Lithium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula LiCl, used in laboratory research, pharmaceutical development, and industrial processes. It is highly soluble in water and ethanol, and exhibits hygroscopic properties. In biotechnology, it is employed in cell culture media and as a reagent in molecular biology protocols.
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Lot number
A unique identifier assigned to a batch of a product during manufacturing, enabling traceability, quality control, and recall management across supply chains and regulatory compliance.
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Lyophilisation
Lyophilisation, also known as freeze-drying, is a process that removes water from a substance by freezing it and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water to sublimate directly from solid to vapour, preserving the structure and biological activity of sensitive materials.
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Mass spectrometry
Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions to identify and quantify molecules in a sample. It is widely used in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and environmental testing for structural elucidation, purity assessment, and biomolecule characterisation.
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Melting point
The temperature at which a solid substance transitions to a liquid state under standard atmospheric pressure. It is a critical physical property used to assess purity, identity, and consistency of chemical compounds in pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and materials science.
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MES
MES is a buffering agent commonly used in biochemical and biotechnological applications to maintain pH stability, particularly in the range of 5.5 to 6.7. It is valued for its low UV absorbance and minimal interference with enzymatic reactions.
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Methanol
Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, is a colourless, flammable liquid used as a solvent, antifreeze, and fuel. It is highly toxic if ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin, and requires careful handling in laboratory and industrial settings.
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Molality
Molality is a measure of solute concentration in a solution, defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Unlike molarity, it is independent of temperature and pressure, making it particularly useful in precise scientific and industrial applications.
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Molarity
Molarity is a measure of concentration expressing the number of moles of a solute per litre of solution, commonly used in chemical and biological laboratories for preparing reagents and solutions.
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Molecular formula
A molecular formula represents the exact number and type of atoms in a molecule of a chemical compound, using standard elemental symbols and numerical subscripts. It provides a concise way to identify the composition of a substance, essential for chemical identification, stoichiometric calculations, and regulatory documentation.
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Molecular weight
Molecular weight, also known as relative molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule relative to one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It is expressed in atomic mass units (u) and is used to characterise chemical compounds in research, manufacturing, and regulatory compliance.
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Molecular-biology grade
Molecular-biology grade refers to reagents or chemicals specifically purified to minimise contaminants that could interfere with sensitive biological assays, such as PCR, sequencing, or cloning. These products are rigorously tested for nucleases, endotoxins, and other impurities that could compromise experimental results.
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MOQ
MOQ, or Minimum Order Quantity, is the smallest quantity of a product a supplier will sell in a single order. It helps manufacturers and suppliers manage production efficiency and cost-effectiveness, particularly in bulk chemical and biotech supply.
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Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma are the smallest free-living microorganisms, lacking a cell wall and capable of contaminating cell cultures and biopharmaceutical products. Their resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics and ability to evade detection make them a significant concern in laboratory and manufacturing settings.
N
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Negishi coupling
A palladium- or nickel-catalysed cross-coupling reaction that forms carbon–carbon bonds between organozinc reagents and organic halides or triflates, widely used in pharmaceutical and fine chemical synthesis.
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Nitric acid
Nitric acid is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with the chemical formula HNO₃. It is widely used in industrial processes, including fertilizer production, explosives manufacturing, and metal processing. In laboratory settings, it serves as a reagent for nitration and digestion of samples.
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Nitrile
A nitrile is an organic compound containing a cyano group (–C≡N) attached to a carbon atom. Nitriles are widely used in chemical synthesis, pharmaceuticals, and industrial materials due to their reactivity and stability. They are also important in polymer production, such as in the manufacture of synthetic rubber and plastics.
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NMR spectroscopy
NMR spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the physical and chemical properties of atoms or molecules in solution by exploiting the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei.
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Normality
Normality is a measure of concentration expressing the number of gram equivalents of solute per litre of solution. It is used in titrations and acid-base reactions, where the reactive capacity of a substance is more relevant than its molar concentration.
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PCR
PCR, or polymerase chain reaction, is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences, enabling detection, analysis, and manipulation of genetic material in research, diagnostics, and biotechnology.
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pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution, defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. It ranges from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline), with 7 being neutral at 25 °C.
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Pharmacopoeia
A pharmacopoeia is an official compendium of standards for pharmaceutical substances, including identity, strength, quality, and purity, used to ensure consistency and safety in medicinal products across a jurisdiction.
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Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)
Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) is a buffer solution commonly used in biological research to maintain physiological pH and osmolarity, supporting cell viability and protein stability during experiments such as cell washing, dilution, and storage.
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Phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid is a weak, inorganic acid with the formula H₃PO₄, widely used in food, pharmaceuticals, and industrial applications. It functions as a pH adjuster, acidulant, and chelating agent, and is available in various grades suitable for laboratory, regulatory, and manufacturing use.
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PIPES
PIPES is a zwitterionic buffering agent commonly used in biochemical and biotechnological applications to maintain stable pH conditions, particularly in enzyme assays and protein purification processes.
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pKa
pKa is a measure of the acidity of a protonated functional group in solution, indicating the pH at which half of the molecules are deprotonated. It is crucial for predicting molecular behaviour in biological and chemical systems.
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PMSF
PMSF (phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) is a serine protease inhibitor commonly used in biochemical research to prevent protein degradation during sample preparation. It is effective against trypsin, chymotrypsin, and other serine-dependent enzymes.
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Polarity
Polarity describes the separation of electric charge within a molecule, leading to regions with partial positive and negative charges. This property influences solubility, reactivity, and intermolecular interactions in chemical and biological systems.
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Potassium chloride
Potassium chloride (KCl) is an inorganic compound used widely in laboratory research, pharmaceutical formulations, and agricultural fertilisers. It serves as a source of potassium ions in biological systems and is essential for maintaining electrolyte balance in cells.
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Potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is a strong alkaline compound used in chemical synthesis, pH regulation, and industrial processes. It is highly corrosive and commonly employed in the production of soaps, fertilisers, and batteries.
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Pyridine
Pyridine is a heterocyclic aromatic compound with the chemical formula C5H5N. It is a colourless liquid with a strong, unpleasant odour and is widely used as a solvent and reagent in organic synthesis, particularly in pharmaceutical and agrochemical manufacturing.
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R
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Racemate
A racemate is a 1:1 mixture of two enantiomers of a chiral molecule, resulting in no net optical activity. It is commonly formed during chemical synthesis when stereoselectivity is not controlled.
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REACH
REACH is the European Union's regulation on chemicals, governing the registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of chemicals to ensure a high level of protection for human health and the environment.
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Reagent grade
Reagent grade denotes a high level of purity suitable for laboratory use in chemical and biological experiments, where impurities could interfere with results. It is commonly used in analytical, research, and development settings requiring consistent and reliable performance.
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Refractive index
The refractive index is a dimensionless number that describes how light propagates through a medium, indicating the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in the medium. It is crucial for characterising optical properties in pharmaceuticals, polymers, and liquid formulations.
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SDS
An SDS (Safety Data Sheet) is a standardized document providing detailed information on the hazards, handling, storage, and emergency procedures for chemical substances and mixtures, ensuring safe use in laboratories and industrial settings.
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SDS (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate)
SDS is an anionic surfactant used in biochemical research to denature proteins and solubilise membrane proteins. It is commonly employed in SDS-PAGE for protein separation based on molecular weight.
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SDS-PAGE
SDS-PAGE (Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis) is a widely used laboratory technique for separating proteins based on their molecular weight. It denatures proteins using SDS and a reducing agent, enabling separation by size through a polyacrylamide gel matrix.
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Shelf life
Shelf life is the period during which a product, such as a chemical, reagent, or biopharmaceutical, maintains its specified quality, stability, and efficacy under defined storage conditions.
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SMILES
SMILES (Simplified Molecular Input Line Entry System) is a notation for describing the structure of chemical molecules using short ASCII strings. It enables efficient data exchange, storage, and retrieval in cheminformatics and drug discovery workflows.
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Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride (NaCl), commonly known as table salt, is an ionic compound composed of sodium and chloride ions. It is widely used in laboratory, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications for maintaining osmotic balance, as a buffer component, and in the preparation of physiological solutions.
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Sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkaline compound with the chemical formula NaOH. It is widely used in industrial processes, laboratory applications, and pharmaceutical manufacturing for pH adjustment, saponification, and as a reagent. Available in solid (pellets, flakes, or granules) and aqueous (solution) forms, it is highly corrosive and requires careful handling.
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Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance that can dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature and pressure, forming a homogeneous solution. It is a critical parameter in pharmaceutical, biotech, and chemical manufacturing for formulation development and process optimisation.
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Specific gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance, typically water at 4 °C. It is a dimensionless quantity used to compare the relative density of liquids and solids without units.
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Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry is an analytical technique used to measure the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a substance at specific wavelengths, enabling quantification of analyte concentration in solution.
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Stereochemistry
Stereochemistry is the study of the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in molecules and how this affects their chemical and biological properties. It is crucial in pharmaceuticals, where different stereoisomers can exhibit distinct pharmacological activities.
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Sterile filtration
Sterile filtration is a process that removes all viable microorganisms from a liquid or gas using a membrane filter with a pore size typically 0.22 µm or smaller, ensuring the final product is microbiologically sterile for pharmaceutical, biotech, and medical device applications.
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Sucrose
Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose, commonly known as table sugar. It is widely used in food, pharmaceuticals, and laboratory applications for its solubility, stability, and non-reducing properties.
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Sulfonamide
A class of organic compounds featuring a sulfonamide functional group (–SO₂NH₂), widely used in pharmaceuticals, particularly as antibacterial agents. Sulfonamides inhibit bacterial folic acid synthesis, making them effective against a range of infections.
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Sulfonate
Sulfonates are anionic surfactants derived from sulfonic acids, widely used in detergents, pharmaceuticals, and industrial processes due to their strong water solubility and surface-active properties.
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Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, dense, oily liquid with the chemical formula H₂SO₄. It is a strong mineral acid widely used in industrial processes, including fertilizer production, chemical synthesis, and battery manufacturing.
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Suzuki coupling
A palladium-catalysed cross-coupling reaction that joins aryl or vinyl boronic acids with aryl or vinyl halides to form biaryl or styrene derivatives. Widely used in pharmaceutical and agrochemical synthesis due to its mild conditions, functional group tolerance, and low toxicity.
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Tariff classification
Tariff classification is the process of assigning a product to a specific code within an international tariff schedule, determining the import duty and regulatory requirements applied to chemical or biotech materials entering a country.
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TCEP
TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine) is a reducing agent commonly used in biochemical and biotechnological applications to break disulfide bonds in proteins and peptides, offering superior stability and efficiency compared to older agents like DTT.
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Technical grade
Technical grade refers to chemicals or reagents that meet basic purity standards suitable for industrial or non-research applications, but are not intended for use in sensitive analytical, pharmaceutical, or biological processes.
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THF
THF (tetrahydrofuran) is a polar aprotic solvent commonly used in organic synthesis, particularly in reactions involving organometallic reagents. It is valued for its ability to dissolve a wide range of compounds and stabilise reactive intermediates.
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Toluene
Toluene is a colourless, aromatic hydrocarbon used as a solvent in industrial and laboratory settings. It is a common component in paints, adhesives, and chemical synthesis, valued for its ability to dissolve a wide range of organic compounds.
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Traceability
Traceability is the ability to trace the history, application, or location of an item by means of documented records. In laboratory and regulatory contexts, it ensures that measurements, materials, and processes can be verified back to recognised standards, supporting data integrity and compliance.
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Tricine
Tricine is a zwitterionic buffer commonly used in biochemical and molecular biology applications, particularly in protein electrophoresis and enzyme assays. It maintains stable pH in the range of 7.0–9.0 and is effective at low ionic strength, minimising interference with protein migration.
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Triethylamine
Triethylamine is a tertiary amine commonly used as a base in organic synthesis, particularly in reactions involving acyl chlorides and anhydrides. It neutralises acids formed during reactions and facilitates nucleophilic substitution. Widely used in pharmaceutical and biotech manufacturing, it is also employed in the purification of organic compounds.
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Tris buffer
A commonly used biochemical buffer composed of tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, effective in the pH range of 7.0 to 9.0. It is widely employed in molecular biology and protein chemistry to maintain stable pH conditions during experiments.
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Tris-buffered saline (TBS)
Tris-buffered saline (TBS) is a commonly used buffer in molecular biology and biochemistry, composed of Tris base and sodium chloride in aqueous solution. It maintains a stable pH, typically around 7.4–8.0, and is widely employed in washing steps during protein and nucleic acid assays.
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Triton X-100
Triton X-100 is a non-ionic surfactant widely used in biochemical and cell biology applications to solubilise membrane proteins and disrupt cell membranes without denaturing proteins. It is commonly employed in lysis buffers, Western blotting, and immunoprecipitation protocols.
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TSCA
TSCA is the US Toxic Substances Control Act, a federal law that gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) authority to regulate the manufacture, import, processing, and use of chemical substances in the United States.
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Tween 20
Tween 20 is a non-ionic surfactant used in biotechnology and pharmaceuticals to prevent protein aggregation and enhance solubility. It is widely employed in formulations, assays, and purification processes due to its stability and low toxicity.
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Urea
Urea is a nitrogen-containing organic compound with the formula CO(NH₂)₂, widely used in laboratory research, pharmaceuticals, and industrial applications. It functions as a denaturant in protein studies and is a key reagent in biochemical assays and synthesis.
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USP grade
USP grade refers to chemical substances meeting the stringent purity, identity, and quality standards set by the United States Pharmacopeia, ensuring suitability for use in pharmaceuticals, biologics, and medical devices.
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UV-Vis
UV-Vis spectroscopy is a technique used to measure the absorption of ultraviolet and visible light by a sample, providing information on concentration, purity, and molecular structure in pharmaceuticals, biologics, and chemical research.